Intranasal Erythropoietin Protects CA1 Hippocampal Cells, Modulated by Specific Time Pattern Molecular Changes After Ischemic Damage in Rats.

Erythropoietin, a multitarget molecule exhibited neuroprotective properties, especially against cerebral ischemia. However, little effort has been made to determinate both the administration pathway and doses that diminishes neuronal damage. In this study, we investigate the effect on CA1 region of different intranasal doses of rHuEPO (500, 1000 and 2500 IU/kg) applied in distinct post-damage times (1, 6, and 24 h) against ischemic cellular damage. Furthermore, most effective dose and time were used to evaluate gen and protein expression changes in 3 key molecules (EPO, EPOR, and ßcR). We established that CA1-region present histopathological damage in this ischemia model and that rHuEPO protects cells against damage, particularly at 1000 IU dose. Molecular data shows that EPO and EPOR gene expression are upregulated in a short term after damage treatment with rHuEPO (1 h); oppositely, BcR is upregulated in ischemic and Isc + EPO. Protein expression data displays no changes on EPO expression in evaluated times after treatment, but a tendency to increase 24 h after damage; in the opposite way, EPOR is upregulated significantly 6 h after treatment and this effect last until 24 h. So, our data suggest that a single intranasal dose of rHuEPO (1 h post-injury) provides histological neurorestoration in CA1 hippocampal region, even if we did not observe a dose-dependent dose effect, the medium dose evaluated (1000 UI/kg of b.w.) was more effective and sufficient for induces molecular changes that provides a platform for neuroprotection.

Adipokine pathways are altered in hippocampus of an experimental mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.

A growing body of evidence suggests that ß-amyloid peptides (Aß) are unlikely to be the only factor involved in Alzheimer's disease (AD) aetiology. In fact, a strong correlation has been established between AD patients and patients with type 2 diabetes and/or cholesterol metabolism alterations. In addition, a link between adipose tissue metabolism, leptin signalling in particular, and AD has also been demonstrated. In the present study we analyzed the expression of molecules related to metabolism, with the main focus on leptin and prolactin signalling pathways in an APPswe/PS1dE9 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice model, at 3 and 6 months of age, compared to wild-type controls. We have chosen to study 3 months-old APP/PS1 animals at an age when neither the cognitive deficits nor significant Aß plaques in the brain are present, and to compare them to the 6 months-old mice, which exhibit elevated levels of Aß in the hippocampus and memory loss. A significant reduction in both mRNA and protein levels of the prolactin receptor (PRL-R) was detected in the hippocampi of 3 months old APP/PS1 mice, with a decrease in the levels of the leptin receptor (OB-R) first becoming evident at 6 months of age. We proceeded to study the expression of the intracellular signalling molecules downstream of these receptors, including stat (1-5), sos1, kras and socs (1-3). Our data suggest a downregulation in some of these molecules such as stat-5b and socs (1-3), in 3 months-old APP/PS1 brains. Likewise, at the same age, we detected a significant reduction in mRNA levels of lrp1 and cyp46a1, both of which are involved in cholesterol homeostasis. Taken together, these results demonstrate a significative impairment in adipokine receptors signalling and cholesterol regulation pathways in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice at an early age, prior to the Aß plaque formation.

REST/NRSF-induced changes of ChAT protein expression in the neocortex and hippocampus of the 3xTg-AD mouse model for Alzheimer's disease.

AIMS: The cholinergic system is one of the neurotransmitter systems altered in Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of human dementia. The objective of this work was to determine the REST/NRSF involvement in altered ChAT expression in the neocortex and hippocampus of an AD transgenic mouse (homozygous 3xTg-AD) that over-expresses 3 proteins, amyloid-ß precursor protein, presenilin-1, and tau, all of which are associated with AD and cause cellular degeneration. MAIN METHODS: Two groups (WT and 3xTg-AD) of 11-month-old female mice were analyzed and compared. Half of the brains of each group were used for ChAT immunohistochemistry, and Western Blot analyses of ChAT and REST/NRSF were performed on the other half. KEY FINDINGS: We observed significant decreases in the number of ChAT-immunoreactive cells in the Meynert nucleus and of fibers in the frontal motor cortex and hippocampal CA1 area in transgenic mice compared with control mice. An increased level of REST/NRSF protein and a reduction of ChAT protein expression in the 3xTg-AD mice compared with their controls were also found in both in the latter two cerebral regions. SIGNIFICANCE: The increased REST/NRSF expression reported here and its effect on the regulatory region for ChAT transcription could explain the decreased expression of ChAT in the 3xTg-AD mouse; these findings may be associated with the degeneration observed in AD.

Expresión de las subunidades del receptor NMDA en la corteza prefrontal de la rata con daño hepático inducido con CCL4 después del tratamiento con Rosmarinus officinalis L / Expression of NMDA receptor subunits in rat prefrontal cortex with CCL4-induced hepatic damage after a treatment with Rosmarinus officinalis L

Introduction: In cirrhosis some toxic substances accumulate in brain and modify the expression of several neuronal receptors. Thus, the use of medicinal plants such as Rosmarinus officinalis L. has been proposed in several pathologies due to its hepatoprotective, antioxidant and neuroprotective activity. In this study we evaluated the expression of the subunits NR1, NR2A and NR2B of the glutamate receptor in rat prefrontal cortex in a model of hepatic damage induced with carbon tetrachloride after a treatment with Rosmarinus officinalis L. Methods: We used a total of 24 male Wistar rats weighing 80-90g. body weight. We formed three study groups: control group (C) without a treatment, carbon tetrachloride group (CC14), and CC14 group plus Rosmarinus officinalis L (CCl4+ROM; 1.5g/kg of extract orally). Results:The expression of the NR1, NR2A and NR2B subunits in cirrhotic animals increased compared to the control group, however treatment with Rosmarinus officinalis L. was able to reduce this expression to normal levels compared with CC14 and CCl4+ROM groups. These results could be due to an improvement in hepatic function. Conclusion: Treatment with extract of Rosmarinus officinalis L. in cirrhotic animals modifies the expression of subunits of the NMDA receptor due to an improvement in hepatocellular function in the presence of antioxidant compounds and flavonoids (AU)

Introducción: En la cirrosis, algunas sustancias tóxicas se acumulan en el cerebro y alteran la expresión de diversos receptores neuronales. En este sentido, se ha propuesto el uso de plantas medicinales como el Rosmarinus officinalis L. en diversas patologías debido su actividad hepatoprotectora, antioxidante y neuroprotectora. En el presente trabajo se evaluó la expresión de las subunidades NR1, NR2A y NR2B del receptor a Glutamato en la corteza prefrontal de la rata en un modelo de daño hepático inducido con tetracloruro de carbono después del tratamiento con Rosmarinus officinalis L. Métodos: Se utilizaron un total de 24 ratas macho Wistar de 80-90g. de peso corporal. Se formaron 3 grupos de trabajo: grupo testigo (T) sin ningún tratamiento, grupo tetracloruro de carbono (CCl4) y grupo CCl4 más Rosmarinus officinalis L (CCl4 +ROM; 1.5g/kg del extracto por vía oral). Resultados: La expresión de las subunidades NR1, NR2A y NR2B incrementaron en los animales cirróticos con respecto al grupo T, sin embargo el tratamiento con Rosmarinus officinalis L fue capaz de disminuir la expresión a niveles normales comparados con los grupos de CCl4 y T. Estos resultados podrían deberse a una mejora en la función hepática. Conclusión: El tratamiento con el extracto de Rosmarinus officinalis L en los animales cirróticos modifica la expresión de las subunidades del receptor NMDA debido a la mejora en la función hepatocelular dada la presencia de compuestos antioxidantes y flavonoides (AU)

Estructura y función de las subunidades del receptor a glutamato tipo NMDA / Structure and function of NMDA-type glutamate receptor subunits

Introducción: Realizar una revisión de la fisiología de las subunidades del receptor a glutamato tipo N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA). Desarrollo: El acido glutámico (Glu) es el principal neurotransmisor excitador del sistema nervioso central la cual interactúa con dos tipos de receptores clasificados como: metabotrópicos y ionotrópicos. Los receptores ionotrópicos se dividen de acuerdo a la afinidad de sus agonistas específicos en: N-metil-D-aspartato (NMDA), ácido α-amino-3-hidroxi-5-metil-4-isoxazol (AMPA) y acido kaínico (KA). Los receptores NMDA son estructuras macromoleculares que se forman por combinaciones de diferentes subunidades: NMDAR1 (NR1), NMDAR2 (NR2) y (NR3). Conclusiones:El estudio de este receptor ha sido de gran interés por la función que desempeña en la plasticidad sináptica, pero sobre todo por la permeabilidad que tiene para el ion Ca++. En esta revisión se analiza la composición molecular del receptor NMDA, así como las distintas variantes de edición de la subunidad NR1 que en asociación con la subunidad NR2 forman el principal dímero de este receptor. La composición, estructura y funcionalidad y sus distintos patrones de expresión tanto temporal y espacial, ha permitido conocer la versatilidad y la diversidad funcional tanto de las diferentes isoformas de la subunidad NR1, así como las distintas propiedades farmacológicas de la subunidad NR2 (AU)

Introducion: To review the physiology of the glutamate receptor subunits such as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). Development:Glutamic acid (Glu) is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system which interacts with two types classified into two types: metabotropic and ionotropic. Ionotropic receptors are classified according to the affinity of their specific agonists: N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), α-amino acid-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole (AMPA) and kainic acid (KA). NMDA receptors are macromolecular structures that are formed by different combinations of subunits, NMDAR1 (NR1), NMDAR2 (NR2) and NMDAR3 (NR3). Conclusions: The study of this receptor has been of great interest due to its role in synaptic plasticity, but mainly due to the permeability it has to Ca++ ion. This review examines the molecular composition of NMDA receptor and the variants of NR1 subunit edition in association with NR2 subunit dimer, the main form of this receptor. The composition, structure and function and their distinct expression patterns in both time and space, has shown the versatility and diversity of functionally different isoforms of the NR1 subunit and various pharmacological properties of the NR2 subunit (AU)

[Expression of NMDA receptor subunits in rat prefrontal cortex with CCL4-induced hepatic damage after a treatment with Rosmarinus officinalis L]. / Expresión de las subunidades del receptor NMDA en la corteza prefrontal de la rata con daño hepático inducido con CCL4 después del tratamiento con Rosmarinus officinalis L.

INTRODUCTION: In cirrhosis some toxic substances accumulate in brain and modify the expression of several neuronal receptors. Thus, the use of medicinal plants such as Rosmarinus officinalis L. has been proposed in several pathologies due to its hepatoprotective, antioxidant and neuroprotective activity. In this study we evaluated the expression of the subunits NR1, NR2A and NR2B of the glutamate receptor in rat prefrontal cortex in a model of hepatic damage induced with carbon tetrachloride after a treatment with Rosmarinus officinalis L. METHODS: We used a total of 24 male Wistar rats weighing 80-90 g. body weight. We formed three study groups: control group (C) without a treatment, carbon tetrachloride group (CC14), and CC14 group plus Rosmarinus officinalis L (CCl4+ROM; 1.5 g/kg of extract orally). RESULTS: The expression of the NR1, NR2A and NR2B subunits in cirrhotic animals increased compared to the control group, however treatment with Rosmarinus officinalis L. was able to reduce this expression to normal levels compared with CC14 and CCl4+ROM groups. These results could be due to an improvement in hepatic function. CONCLUSION: Treatment with extract of Rosmarinus officinalis L. in cirrhotic animals modifies the expression of subunits of the NMDA receptor due to an improvement in hepatocellular function in the presence of antioxidant compounds and flavonoids.

[Structure and function of NMDA-type glutamate receptor subunits]. / Estructura y función de las subunidades del receptor a glutamato tipo NMDA.

INTRODUCTION: To review the physiology of the glutamate receptor subunits such as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA). DEVELOPMENT: Glutamic acid (Glu) is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system which interacts with two types classified into two types: metabotropic and ionotropic. Ionotropic receptors are classified according to the affinity of their specific agonists: N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), α-amino acid-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole (AMPA) and kainic acid (KA). NMDA receptors are macromolecular structures that are formed by different combinations of subunits, NMDAR1 (NR1), NMDAR2 (NR2) and NMDAR3 (NR3) CONCLUSIONS: The study of this receptor has been of great interest due to its role in synaptic plasticity, but mainly due to the permeability it has to Ca(++) ion. This review examines the molecular composition of NMDA receptor and the variants of NR1 subunit edition in association with NR2 subunit dimer, the main form of this receptor. The composition, structure and function and their distinct expression patterns in both time and space, has shown the versatility and diversity of functionally different isoforms of the NR1 subunit and various pharmacological properties of the NR2 subunit.

Lack of Jun-N-terminal kinase 3 (JNK3) does not protect against neurodegeneration induced by 3-nitropropionic acid.

AIMS: 3-Nitropropionic acid (3-NP) is a toxin that replicates most of the clinical and pathophysiological symptoms of Huntington's disease, inducing neurodegeneration in the striatum due to the inhibition of mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase. Different pathways have been implicated in the cell death induced by 3-NP in rodents. One of them is the Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, which may play a role in the neurodegenerative process in different diseases. Moreover, the lack of one isoform of JNK (JNK3) has been associated with neuroprotection in different experimental models of neurodegeneration. Therefore, in the present study the role of JNK3 in the experimental Huntington's model induced by 3-NP administration was evaluated. METHODS: 3-NP was intraperitoneally administered once a day for 3 days to wild-type and Jnk3-null mice. Coronal brain sections were used to determine cell death and astrogliosis in striatum. Western blots were performed to determine the involvement of different pathways in both wild-type and Jnk3-null mice. RESULTS: Although JNK activation was observed following 3-NP administration, the results indicate that the lack of JNK3 does not confer neuroprotection against 3-NP toxicity. Thus, other pathways must be involved in the neurodegeneration induced in this model. One of the possible pathways towards 3-NP-induced apoptosis could involve the calpains, as their activity was increased in wild-type and Jnk3-null mice. CONCLUSION: Although JNK3 is a key protein involved in cell death in different neurodegenerative diseases, the present study demonstrates that the lack of JNK3 does not confer neuroprotection against 3-NP-induced neuronal death.

HIF-1α expression in the hippocampus and peripheral macrophages after glutamate-induced excitotoxicity.

Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) is a master transcription factor that regulates the response to hypoxia and ischemia and induces the expression of various genes, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and erythropoietin (EPO). This study shows the systemic response of increased HIF-1α, EPO, and VEGF mRNA and protein. In addition, VEGF expression was increased in neurons and over-expressed in glial cells in a model of neuroexcitotoxicity in the hippocampus, in which rats were neonatally exposed to high glutamate concentrations. Simultaneous increases in HIF-1α, EPO and VEGF mRNA in peritoneal macrophages were also observed. Our study is consistent with the hypothesis that these genes exert a protective effect in response to neurotoxicity.

Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid induces antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities in experimental liver fibrosis.

BACKGROUND: Experimental liver fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl(4)) is associated with oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and inflammation. This work was focused on elucidating the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) in this model of hepatotoxicity. METHODS: Wistar male rats were treated with CCl(4) and EDTA (60, 120, or 240 mg/kg). Morphometric analyses were carried out in Masson's stained liver sections to determine fibrosis index. Coagulation tests prothrombin time (PT) and partial thromboplastin time (PTT) were also determined. Gene expression for transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta1), alpha1(I) procollagen gene (alpha1 Col I), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) was monitored by real-time PCR. Antioxidant effect of EDTA was measured by its effects on lipid peroxidation; biological activity of ceruloplasmin (Cp), SOD, and catalase (Cat) were analyzed by zymography assays. RESULTS: Animals with CCl(4)-hepatic injury that received EDTA showed a decrement in fibrosis (20%) and lipid peroxidation (22%). The mRNA expression for TNF-alpha (55%), TGF-beta1 (50%), IL-6 (52%), and alpha1 Col I (60%) was also decreased. This group of animals showed increased Cp (62%) and SOD (25%) biological activities. Coagulation blood tests, Cat activity, and gene expression for SOD were not modified by EDTA treatment. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that EDTA treatment induces the activity of antioxidant enzymes, decreases lipid peroxidation, hepatic inflammation, and fibrosis in experimental liver fibrosis induced by CCl(4).

Protective effects of tryptophan on neuro-inflammation in rats after administering lipopolysaccharide.

Tryptophan (TRP), which plays an important role in immune system regulation, protein synthesis, serotonin (5-HT) and melatonin production, is a potent endogenous free radical scavenger and antioxidant. The aim of this work was to determine the efficacy of TRP in neuro-inflammation induced by systemic administration of lipopolysacharide (LPS, 20mg/kg) which promotes the synthesis of free radical (LPO: MDA and 4-HDA), and pro-inflammatory cytokine Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in different brain regions (cerebral cortex and hippocampus) of rats. Experiments were performed on adult female, pregnant and lactating rats fed with a diet of TRP content (0.5mg/100g protein), cerebral cortex and hippocampus were evaluated for lipid peroxidation (LPO) products, nitrites, nitrates and plasmatic concentration of IFN-γ. LPO levels in LPS+TRP groups were significantly decreased than that obtained in the LPS group. However, there were no observed differences in plasmatic levels of nitrites and nitrates as well as IFN-γ, neither in the cerebral cortex or hippocampus. The TRP has protective effect in the oxidative damage in a model of endotoxic shock in the breading nurslings induced by the systemic administration of LPS, acting as a scavenger of free radicals. So, it can be proposed as an innocuous protector agent in the endotoxic shock process.

Combinatorial gene therapy induces regression of hepatic encephalopathy.

Capillarization of the sinusoid impedes the clearance of neurotoxic substances in liver fibrosis. These events may result in hepatic encephalopathy. Neurological and hepatic features of rats after bile duct ligation (BDL) supplemented with Manganese (BDL+Mn(2+)) were examined. The 4-week-old BDL rats had elevated levels of ammonia and were concomitantly fed with 1 mg ml(-1) of MnCl(2) in drinking water (BDL/Mn(+2)). Five out of fifteen rats were killed and the serum, liver and brain tissue (striatum and substantia nigra) were recovered. Of the remaining BDL/Mn(+2)-cirrhotic animals (n=10), five were injected with a combination of Adenovirus-human plasminogen activator (Ad-huPA) and Adenovirus-matrix metalloproteinase-8 (Ad-MMP-8) (3 × 10(11)+1.5 × 10(11) vector particles per kg), and five with 4.5 × 10(11) vector particles per kg of Adenovirus-ß-galactosidase (Ad-ß-Gal). This treatment was carried on for 10 days. The BDL/Mn(+2) rats displayed tremor, rigidity and gait abnormalities, which improved notably with combinatorial gene therapy, as well as motor coordination. Liver fibrosis was evidently less after treatment with Ad-huPA+Ad-MMP-8 (25%). In the brain (striatum), Ad-huPA+Ad-MMP-8 treatment rendered higher concentrations of dopamine compared with Ad-ß-Gal-treated encephalopathic rats (210 and 162 ng g(-1) of tissue, respectively). The BDL/Mn(+2) animals and controls treated with Ad-ß-Gal showed abnormal morphology in astrocytes (gliosis) in striatum and substantia nigra, in which expressions of green fibrillar acidic protein and tyrosine hydroxylase were altered. These abnormalities decreased with Ad-huPA+Ad-MMP-8 treatment. Importantly, the latter animals showed an increment in sprouting of nervous fibers in substantia nigra. Combinatorial gene therapy improves neuroanatomical and neurochemical characteristics similar to human hepatic encephalopathy.

Expression of HIF-1 alpha, VEGF and EPO in peripheral blood from patients with two cardiac abnormalities associated with hypoxia.

OBJECTIVES: HIF-1 alpha (hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha) mediates the responses of mammalian cells to hypoxia/ischemia by inducing the expression of adaptive gene products (e.g., vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and erythropoietin (EPO)). Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN) and cyanotic congenital heart disease (CCHD) are common neonatal diseases considered as paradigms of hypoxemia. Since the expression HIF-1 alpha, VEGF and EPO in newborns diagnosed with these diseases has yet to be studied, we set out to define the expression of these genes in peripheral blood from newborn infants diagnosed with PPHN and CCHD. DESIGN AND METHODS: The mRNA transcripts encoding HIF-1 alpha, VEGF and EPO were measured by RT-PCR in healthy newborn infants and infants diagnosed with PPHN and CCHD. RESULTS: An important increase in HIF-1 alpha expression was observed in both pathological conditions, accompanied by significant increases in VEGF and EPO expression when compared to healthy infants. CONCLUSIONS: HIF-1 alpha mRNA expression increases in newborn infants with PPHN or CCHD, as does the expression of its target genes VEGF and EPO.

Damage and plasticity in adult rat hippocampal trisynaptic circuit neurons after neonatal exposure to glutamate excitotoxicity.

Hippocampal vulnerability to excitotoxicity has been widely studied along with its implication to learning and memory. Neonatal glutamate excitotoxicity induces loss of CA1 pyramidal neurons in adult rats concomitantly with some plastic changes in the dendritic spines of surviving neurons. At least in part, these may underlie the place learning impairments seen in previous studies based on a similar excitotoxicity-inducing model. In the present study, cytoarchitecture of dentate gyrus, CA3 and CA1 fields were evaluated in 120-day-old rats, after they had been neonatally treated with glutamate as monosodium salt. Dentate granule cells and CA1 pyramidal neurons were less than those counted in NaCl-treated control animals. In addition, dentate granule cells had more dendrites as well as more branched spines. Spine density in CA1 pyramidal neurons was greater than in the controls. Additionally, thin and mushroom spines were proportionally more abundant in monosodium glutamate-treated animals. No effects were seen in the hippocampal CA3 field. Our results strongly suggest a long-term induction of plastic changes in the cytoarchitecture of the hippocampal trisynaptic circuit neurons after cell death provoked by the monosodium glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. These plastic events as well as the aberrant expression of the glutamate NMDA receptors resulting from monosodium glutamate neonatal treatment could be strongly associated with the place learning impairments previously reported.

Changes in hippocampal NMDA-R subunit composition induced by exposure of neonatal rats to L-glutamate.

Overactivation of NMDA-Rs may mediate excitotoxic cell death associated with epileptic seizures, and hypoxic-ischemic conditions. We assessed whether repeated subcutaneous administration of l-glutamate to neonatal rats affects the subunit composition of NMDA-Rs. Accordingly, cortical and hippocampal tissue from 14-day-old rats was analyzed by Western blotting and RT-PCR to quantify the protein and mRNA expression of different NMDA-R subunits. In addition, tissue sections were Nissl stained to assess the cell damage in this tissue. Early exposure of neonatal rats to L-glutamate differentially affects the expression of mRNA transcripts for NMDA-R subunits in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. In the cerebral cortex, a decrease in NR2B subunit mRNA expression was observed, as well as a loss of NR1 and NR2A protein. By contrast, neonatal L-glutamate administration augmented the transcripts encoding the NR1, NR2B, and NR2C subunits in the hippocampal formation. The expression of mRNA encoding the NR2A subunit was not affected by neonatal L-glutamate administration in either of the brain regions examined. This differential expression of NMDA-R subunits following neonatal exposure to L-glutamate may represent an adaptive response of the glutamate receptors to overactivation in order to reduce the effect of high L-glutamate during the early period of life when the animal is more vulnerable to excitotoxicity.

Role of p38 MAPK and pro-inflammatory cytokines expression in glutamate-induced neuronal death of neonatal rats.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 rises significantly during neuronal damage and activate the signaling p38 MAPK pathway, which is involved in the apoptotic (AP) neuronal death. Systemic administration of glutamate as monosodium salt (MSG) to newborn animals induces neuronal death, however whether neurons die by AP or necrosis through MAPK p38 pathway activation it is unknown. In this study, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 expression levels, AP neuronal death and cellular type that produces TNF-alpha was also identified in the cerebral cortex (CC) and striatum (St) of rats at 8, 10, and 14 days of age after neonatal exposure to MSG. TNF-alpha production and AP neuronal death was significantly increased in the CC at PD8-10, and in the St in all ages studied by excitotoxicity effect induced with MSG. This effect was completely inhibited by SB203580 (p38 inhibitor) in both regions studied. TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 RNAm increased after MSG administration, whereas SB203580 did not modify their expression. These data indicates that neuronal death induced by excitotoxicity appears to be mediated through p38 signaling pathway activated by TNF-alpha and their inhibition may have an important neuroprotective role as part of anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategy.

The expression and binding of kainate receptors is modified in different brain regions by glutamate neurotoxicity during postnatal rat development.

Kainic acid receptor (KA-R) subunits are differentially expressed during brain development, and they modulate both neural growth and survival. High concentrations of glutamate in the brain can induce neuronal injury through these receptors, altering normal development. However, it is unclear whether KAR subunit expression itself is also modified by neonatal exposure to high glutamate. To analyze this, monosodium glutamate (4mg/g of body weight) was subcutaneously administered on postnatal days 1, 3, 5 and 7, and the expression of GluR5, GluR6, KA1 and KA2, as well as [(3)H]-kainic acid (KA-R) binding, was evaluated on postnatal days 14, 21, 30 and 60 in different regions of rat brain. As a result, high levels of GluR5 expression associated with strong [(3)H]-kainic acid binding were observed on postnatal days 30 and 60 in the cerebral cortex of rats exposed to glutamate. Similarly, the changes induced by glutamate administration in the expression of the KA1 and KA2 subunits were paralleled by those of [(3)H]-kainic acid binding in the striatum at postnatal days 21 and 30. In contrast, while KAR subunits were over expressed in the hippocampus, no changes were observed in [(3)H]-kainic acid binding in adult rats that had been exposed to glutamate. Therefore, glutamate modifies both the expression of kainic acid receptor subunits and kainic acid binding in a determined spatial and temporal manner, which may be indicative of a regional susceptibility to glutamate neurotoxicity.

Neuronal damage and changes in the expression of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtypes in the neonatal rat cerebral cortical upon exposure to sparteine, a quinolizidine alkaloid.

Sparteine is a quinolizidine alkaloid (QA) produced by Lupine species that has generated much interest due to its anti-hypertensive, anti-pyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. In the nervous system, sparteine has been shown to display anti-cholinergic and depressive activity, although how sparteine exerts its toxic effects in the brain remains unclear. We have addressed this issue by administering subcutaneous injections of sparteine (25 mg/kg of body weight) to rats on postnatal days 1 and 3, and then examining the expression of the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) subunits m1-m4 in the brains of the neonatal rats 14-60 days later. Administration of sparteine to neonatal rats caused neuronal damage in the cerebral motor cortex accompanied by transient changes in the expression of m1-m4 mAChR subunits as revealed by both RT-PCR and Western blotting. This effect could be prevented by pre-treatment with atropine (10 mg/kg) 1 h prior to the injection of sparteine, suggesting that the cytotoxic activity of sparteine is mediated through mAChRs.